tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5737095856374779082024-03-14T00:23:35.023+03:00Russian private law The blog is about different aspects of Russian private law, namely about the law of real estate, contract law, consumer law, housing law, law on biotechnologies and, finally, family law.
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.comBlogger17125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-29116233532497668592017-03-13T09:27:00.001+03:002017-03-19T18:01:45.050+03:00Informed consent for biomaterial usage in Russian law<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Any competition of two persons’ interests can likely to be deemed as collision of some values protected, at the highest level, by a constitution. Although such a conflict is to be balanced by a legislator and anyone who enforce the law, one of rival interests groups is usually stronger thus becoming general rules of the law while competing interests form exceptions which tends to harmonize the whole legislative system.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In using body samples the situation is exactly the same. Donor’s (and, unsurprisingly, her relatives') desire for privacy protection clashes with the researches and pharmacists wish to freely use it as the source of valuable data and raw material for drugs manufacturing, that is as the source of proaafit. If the legislator had chosen to consider tissues primarily as data, resulting from the fact that a single cell contains the whole DNA of a person, any way of cell usage would have been regarded as privacy intervention to be legally grounded and socially justified.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Meanwhile nowadays the general regime is entirely different as it was the property model, which was chosen as legislation framework for tissues and cells. So the conflict of interests arises only if this specific property belongs not to its progenitor but to the third party, mainly to medical, scientific and pharmacy institutions. I tried to show that Russian legislation in this field follows the law of the USA as well as that of the EU, so in all these countries the property law tends to protect an owner from anyone’s infringement, including from source individual’s one.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">So it is the time to consider two main restrictions, which data protection law imposes on the owner of biosamples, these are rules on voluntary informed consent and privacy protection.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Informed consent</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Voluntary informed consent (hereinafter simply ‘informed consent’) as a mandatory requirement of any biomaterial research is based on the concept that such studying is studying of a human being for the latter the informed consent has being a imperative requisite since the Nuremberg Code. Its shortage forced the World Health Organization to develop a far more detailed ethical guide on medical studying of human beings as subject matter, which was enacted in Helsinki in 1964 and thus is famous as Declaration of Helsinki. Over the half of the century it has been updated time and again, the last version being issued in 2013.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">According to the art (1)73 of the Health Protection Act all personnel of medical institutions shall act with compliance to medical ethics and to follow ethical rules is regarded as part of the principle of patient’s interests priority (see art. (1) 6 of the same Act). So the Declaration of Helsinky is widely recognized as part of Russian law despite the fact that the country has enacted no formal act to implement its provisions into the legislation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Declaration is said in its Preamble to be drafted as a set of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects and their identifiable material and data. The remarks on human biomaterial had been added to the document during its fifth revision in 2000, basing on the concept that studying body material is studying a human being. Meanwhile this doctrine has been widely criticized recently for both its arguably wrong roots and harmful consequences. Indeed, the informed consent requirement in application to tissues and cells is rooted in the same principles of autonomy and a right to weight all risks of medical interventions that determines the universal foundation of the informed consent. However, as far as bodily materials after dissection are concerned, these ideas apparently do not work, for after separation any use of samples would never affect the subject’s health. Full and consistent operation of the autonomy right, in turn, would enable any patient to stop the whole body of medical research that evidently contradicts social interests. That is why the informed consent requirement has been weakened over the years, shifting to ‘broad consent’ model, which enables researchers to inform the donor on foreseeable usage of his material.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This tendency is reflected in Russian State Standard on Good Clinical Practice, which is said to be identical to ISO 14155:2011 «Clinical investigation of medical devices for human subjects — Good clinical practice». Art. 3.6 of the Standard provides a definition of clinical investigation which is described as any ‘systematic investigation in one or more human subjects, undertaken to assess the safety or performance of a medical device’. It is entirely clear that, for example, a blood sample studying can never be viewed as an investigation ‘in human subjects’ as the only person with conscious and will in this investigation is the researcher herself and not at all the source individual.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">However, nowadays denial of the informed consent cannot be said to overcome the traditional approach neither in developed countries legislation nor in legal or medical periodic. That is why, although Russian law does not expressly require the informed consent for human biomaterials research (or other usage as well), the huge importance and influence of the Declaration make the medical institutions obtain it from the patients.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Leaving behind general rules of the document we should mention its two main clauses on informed consent. First of all, art. 26 require each potential subject to be informed of the aims, methods, sources of funding, any possible conflicts of interest, the anticipated benefits and potential risks of the study and the discomfort it may entail and any other relevant aspects of the study. After ensuring that the potential subject has understood the information, the ‘qualified individual’ should seek the potential subject’s freely-given informed consent, preferably in writing. For biomaterial usage art. 32 of the Declaration further provides that in any medical research involving identifiable human material or data, such as research on material or data contained in biobanks, the informed consent should be obtained for either its collection, storage or reuse. However, this strict rule has an immediate exception namely when seeking for the consent is ‘impractical’, it can replaced be approval of an ethic committee.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As for any reuse of body material it is necessary to obtain the donor’s informed consent and because of absence of any hints on its content in national law, one should follow the European approach in the question. The Declaration’s requirement is deemed to be satisfied when, as was made in Catalana v. Washington University, the source individual is provided with the brochure with general information on the research and its foreseeable aims, which according to art. 11 of the Recommendations of the European Council expressly states that their composition and intensity could differ and the samples could be transferred to third parties for research purposes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The post on personal data protection is coming soon...</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-64941389390440257842017-03-08T08:33:00.000+03:002017-03-19T15:46:29.633+03:00Common property in household communities<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Couple of months ago, in November 2016, the
Constitutional Court of Russia issued a decision on a controversial topic of
legal regime of property which is due to serve to different households (such as
roads or water pipelines) in ‘summer cottage’ communities (Russian text is availably <a href="http://doc.ksrf.ru/decision/KSRFDecision251739.pdf" target="_blank">here</a>). Unfortunately, the
Court skirted the main problem, answering the questions formally and avoiding delving
into the essence of the relationships in question. So, what was it all about?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">I have already <a href="http://russianprivatelaw.blogspot.ru/2017/01/a-landmark-decision-on-real-property.html" target="_blank">written</a> about the modern history of
real estate doctrine in Russia, trying to show that during the last decade of
the 20</span><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 10.0pt;">th</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> century (and the
first decade of post-Soviet economic reforms) the focus of both the government
and the legislators was on the speed of privatizstion and not at all on the
clarity of the law. In particular, apartments in blocks of flats and land
parcels were transferred to private owners through entirely different schemes
which led to completely distinct legal regimes for so called ‘serving property’
in the current legislation.</span></span><br />
<span style="-webkit-text-stroke: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While apartments are usually individual property, everything which is not within a flat volume and is due to help using the flat as a place of living (for instance, a basement, a roof, all the pipes and cables outside the flat, elevators and so on) is considered as common property of all the flat owners. For this property special regulation is provided, namely it can be sold only with the apartment (while the apartment cannot be sold without a share in the common property), the title on this property is not to be registered separately, any owner of the flat is entitled to bring an action to protect such property…</span></span><br />
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Meanwhile, although individual households built upon private parcels have arguably the same functions (that is to live in) and their purchase is commonly considered as alternative to buying a flat, they have a distinct regime as far as property rules are concerned. Within the private plot there is understandably no room for common interests and thus co-ownership but even as one makes the first step out he or she enters another’s private property. The current law surprisingly ignores the obvious fact that a road or a pavement is something of common usage. So it is quite common when all the infrastructure of a households community is sold to a single buyer with the only reason to exploit local monopolism.</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">In this particular dispute an owner of a parcel in one of the most luxurious villages in the whole Russia (namely one of Moscow’s suburbs called Barviha) brought two actions simultaneously namely an action to recover several parcels from a buyer of such common used property and at the same time – an action for restitution of the same arguably void sale contract. He tried to prove that in households communities the same rules should be applied as were outlined above for apartments in blocks of flats, so any contract of sale of such commonly used property into a sole ownership violates constitutional guarantees on property protection despite being made according to the current legislation.</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">He unsurprisingly lost his case as in Russian law one cannot ask for restitution and vindication. Having discussed some legal technicalities from only the formal perspective of literal construction, the Constitutional Court eschewed looking thoroughly at the problem, leaving it to lay people to pay extra to malicious purchases of commonly used property and to the legislator – to tackle the problem when in thinks fit.</span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-15864425706039269402017-03-03T10:48:00.001+03:002017-03-19T15:40:37.906+03:00The content of right of ownership on bodily material in Russia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: black; text-indent: 47.2px;">Recently I made couple of posts on the c</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; line-height: 24px; text-indent: 47.2px;">ontroversial question whether <a href="http://russianprivatelaw.blogspot.ru/2017/02/is-there-property-right-on-human.html" target="_blank">tissues and cells are property</a> according to current Russian law concluding with affirmative answer. I'd like to continue developing this idea, diving into the problem of starting point of their existence as well as the content of the owner's right. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-style: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: 24px; text-indent: 47.2px;"></span></span><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">When the
new chattel starts to exist?</span></h4>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_HsHdJZJfAE/WLwBPkwsLII/AAAAAAAAACI/xeeUGcIR67slErlFFcKLtPwxfsuYTeCMwCEw/s1600/i.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_HsHdJZJfAE/WLwBPkwsLII/AAAAAAAAACI/xeeUGcIR67slErlFFcKLtPwxfsuYTeCMwCEw/s200/i.jpeg" width="160" /></a><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">Before thinking about how right of ownership on
biosamples is limited in favour of third parties and, in particular, the
progenitor, the content of the right should be talked about as nobody have
discussed it in respect of Russian legislation yet. Given that a subject matter of any property right is a
material thing (which is definitely true for Russian law), until dissection of
tissue (cells) from a body there is no separate object and thus no right upon
it.</span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=573709585637477908#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
For this reason the separation of the sample from the body cannot be considered
as analogy for fruits and fructiferous thing (art. 136 of the Civil Code) as a
body of a living human being is certainly not a ‘thing’.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">So the dissection is a moment when a new
chattel is created and according to art. (1) 218 of the Code the owner of the
new object is the one who creates it ‘for oneself’. When the separation is made
by the progenitor, for example, at home, he or she thus becomes an owner unlike
the case when a medical institution through its personnel does it. The latter
either must consider biosamples as waste and destroy it or should preserve them
from rotting by putting ‘work and skill’. Whatever the conservation technique
would be, it is always done in the interests of the medical entity (for
scientific, educational or other reasons) but not ‘for the patient’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Moreover, as biosamples require essential
skills for their preservation, one should remember a 'processing rule', which
provides that whoever the owner of the raw material was, the new thing made of
it would belong to a bona fide converter given that the work and skill value
overtopped that of raw material significantly (art. (1) 220 of Civil Code). In
the current issue unless the tissues and cells are preserved, they must be
destroyed as medical waste and thus they have ‘negative’ price. However, their
preservation converts them into pieces of scientific, educational and probably
commercial value falling exactly within the scope of the cited art. of the Code.
As ‘raw material’ can give no financial benefit, the patient cannot claim any
compensation for its use. That means that a new chattel is created by a medical
institution, which makes it for itself, and thus should be considered as its
primary owner. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In other words, when biosamples are collected
at come they prime facie belong to a donor, while being dissected in a medical
body they become the property of the institution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<h4 style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
content of property rights on biomaterial</span></h4>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Russian law traditionally considers the
ownership as a brunch of primarily three abilities namely to possess, to use
and to dispose of a thing. To possess means to have economical power over
something, which is usually argued to be a matter of fact and not a right
enforceable against anyone else. It seems entirely clear that any owner can
possess bodily material in this sense. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">As we discussed above, in absence of general
prohibition an owner can also dispose of the samples with some limitations provided by specific acts of legislation. It should be
repeated that all these restrictions are set for ‘donor – donee’
relationship so the latter can truly free alienate the tissues and cells either
for consideration or gratuitously. That leads to a conclusion that an owner can
either destruct these objects as waste or create a new thing out of them, for
example, an educational exhibit. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The dominant approach to ability to use as a
part of the ownership right is that ‘usage’ means possibility to obtain gains
out of functions of the object as they commonly understood and applied in
turnover. For example, to use a car means primarily to drive it while its
keeping in one’s yard is argued to be mere possession. Thinking about ‘usage’
of biosamples in that sense faces inevitably difficulties, as there are no
common views on their functions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Although over thousands of years people have
being studied human body, just recently (from historical perspective) genetics
have made possible to read the entire genome out of a single cell, even dead
one. Big data technologies help to compare thousands of genomes to let
scientists extract new information out of them as well as find totally new ways
of its application in medical or pharmacy purposes. Absence of common view on
how bodily material is to be used can lead one to thinking that its function
depends on the contract it was transferred upon. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, if medical intervention was aimed
remove a tumor – is should be destructed, the blood taken for biochemical
analysis should not used for any other research and so on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This view is emotionally backed with a wish
to give a progenitor maximum protection, limiting usage of one’s cells as much
as possible. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">However this approach is arguably wrong for
several reasons in Russian law.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">First of all, ownership on tissues and cells is
restricted without any lawful ground while international law as well as
national legislation consider ownership as just the same pillar of public order
as human’s freedom or body integrity. Art. 17 of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights provides that ‘Everyone has the right to own property alone as
well as in association with others’ so ‘No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of
his property’. Art. 1 of the first additional Protocol to the European Convention
for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms entitled every
natural or legal person ‘to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions. No one shall
be deprived of his possessions except in the public interest and subject to the
conditions provided for by law and by the general principles of international
law’. On this basis art. 35 of Russian Constitution guaranteed property
protection and stated that only federal law may restrict right of ownership in
order to protect the fundamental principles of public order, morals, health,
rights and lawful interests of other persons, national defence or security. So
to restrict one’s right on bodily material some legal grounds should be found
in order to evaluate whether they aimed to protect above-mentioned purposes.
However, <a href="http://russianprivatelaw.blogspot.ru/2017/02/is-there-property-right-on-human.html" target="_blank">as I have said before</a>, current Russian legislation contains none
universal restrictions so we must not invent one. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Secondly, without any legal ground or
justification the approach limits the owner’s freedom to receive and impart
information (art. 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art (1) 10
of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms), and it should be specifically mentioned that any restrictions
provided to protect confidential information are regarded as exclusions from
this universal freedom (art. (2) 10 of the European Convention). To develop
these basic ideas art. 29 of Russian Constitution proclaimed the freedom of
ideas and speech, including the right to freely look for, receive, transmit,
produce and distribute information by any legal way while art. (1) 44 of the
Constitution guaranteed to everyone the freedom of scientific and technical
creativity. In this context the prohibition for collection, keeping or
dissemination of information without one’s consent (art. (1) 24 of the
Constitution) shall be considered as the restriction of the freedom to speak
and to create just the same way as it is viewed in the rest of the Globe. As any exclusions must not be construed expansively,
in a case of doubt freedom to speak should prevail privacy. Applying these
reasons to the problem in question we should infer the right of an owner to
freely obtain genetic information out of bodily material as well as keep and
distribute these information with respect to limitation set in the law of
privacy. However, it is this freedom to extract information of the cells that
constitutes the essence of the ability to use biosamples in the modern world
so, to put it in other words, to regard the right to obtain genetic information
means to regard the right to use tissues and cells universally.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Then, not only doesn’t the criticised approach
protect the progenitor from infringement of her privacy, but leads to them
directly because limiting the owner’s right to use, it doesn’t limit the right
to dispose. So nothing prevails the owner from transferring the sample to a
third party to make a survey that was arguably banned for him or her personally. That means that
formalities and restrictions could make the owner distribute biosamples to
skirt the problem thus raising the risk of privacy interference. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Moreover, a donor cannot control the criticised
restriction so the only way to enforce it would be to further develop
bureaucracy, which shall be avoided in any case. Otherwise the limitation would
become a formality too easy to skirt. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Finally, the approach would contradict the
basics of the national health legislation. I mean that a medical institution
rarely can state in the contract an exact purpose of research it collects
biosamples for, so in vast majority of cases it would be impossible to use
bodily materials. In the USA, Australia and European Union the same problem was
thoroughly discussed in terms of narrow, broad or blank consent and as was
shown above the current legislation in the EU, for instance, provides quite
flexible solution. To restrict usage of bodily material further than it is done
in developed counties means nothing else but to hinder medical research in Russia
that is obviously contrary to aims of the current legislation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left; text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In essence all these arguments result in the
conclusion that owners of bodily material can use it universally, for any
purposes they wish unless otherwise directly provided by law (all these
restrictions will be discussed below), for example, it can be used in
scientific or educational projects, as part of biobanks collections or for
deriving cell lines.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=573709585637477908#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The controversial question whether
there is a property right on one’s own body should be set aside here, for
current legislation the answer is clearly negative. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-39127470970676091442017-02-27T10:20:00.000+03:002017-03-03T19:55:33.668+03:00Consumers law and financial institutions<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">In the
first Quarter Practise Review, issued by the Russian Supreme Court in the
mid-February, one can find several decisions on consumer's relationship with
banks or other financial institutions. I have already written a <a href="http://russianprivatelaw.blogspot.ru/2017/02/currency-fall-is-not-hardship-is-russia.html" target="_blank">post</a> on one of
them, namely on a 'hardship' clause and modification of a loan contract, made
in foreign currency. Here are the outlines of two others and some general
conclusions...</span></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">Microfinancial institutions and usurious
interest<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">man </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">took a loan on 2 % per day that is 730 % per
year. Isn't it too much? Isn't it enough to consider the interest rate as
usurious and hence - to consider the condition void as contrary to the public
order or on the other basis, listed in the Chapter 9 of the Civil Code of
Russia? The borrower tried to prove that it was a hard bargain, but failed. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">The Supreme
court pointed out that microlaoans are subject to heavy statutory regulations,
which limits, among other things, the maximum interest rate. On the day of the
contract the average annual rate for similar loans (made without any security
and with the sum less than 30 000 rubles (roughly $500)) was 686% so the 730 %
had not exceeded the extra limits, put in the legislation. Thus the condition
in question did not violate the law. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
decision shows the actual price of money for lay people in Russia as well as
their vulnerability and total defenceless</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">ness</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> before the power of financial institutions which are backed with the
whole judicial system. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">Responsibility for deposit withdrawal delay<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">In another
case a bank with substantial delay returned a deposit so the depositor brought
an action, asking for the penalty according with The Consumer Protection Law
(the rate was 3 % per day that is 1095 % annually). However, the court applied
the general rate provided in art. 856 of Civil Code (that is around 15 %
annually). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">From the juridical
perspective the dispute was about which rule had to be considered general and
which one was specific. Before the decision it was generally argued that Civil
Code provides general norm while The Consumer Protection Law was said to
specific (as a codified Law should have priority before a 'general law'). The
Supreme Court turned it upside down by saying that the consumer protection law
provides the penalty rate 'unless otherwise provided by the law'. Given that
the Civil Code penalty rate was established later, it containers exactly
'otherwise provided' thus prevailing the consumer protection legislation. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">Taking all
three decisions together, one cannot avoid a general conclusion that in
ambiguous and unclear circumstances the Court supported financially the
strongest party, as all the rulings were made in favour of banks or other
financial institutions. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">So contrary
to proclaimed purposes of the consumer protection law, ordinary people tend to
stay helpless in courts, although the judges had plenty opportunities to make
the opposite rulings. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-35679556533273663722017-02-25T11:33:00.001+03:002017-03-19T15:56:24.178+03:00On-line court proceedings coming soon... <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">A week ago Russian Parliament voted for pushing the Internet further in the litigation to make it more transparent. A draft to let all types of proceedings, including even criminal one, to be transmitted on the web site on-line, passed the lower Chamber of the Parliament. According to the draft, some general requirements should be fulfilled for the filming namely keeping order in the courtroom and prohibiting interfering the procedure. The main restriction would apparently be the necessity to get the court permission for shooting, the latter being reluctant for being filmed. </span></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">However, just the same way a decade ago there were lots of speculations on the idea to publish all courts decisions in the Internet, plenty of jurists and journalists backed the idea, while claiming the judges would resist. Nowadays, when the publication became a commonplace, they proved to be wrong. So on-line court proceedings will definitely have to overcome some confrontation but in the near future we shall all get accustomed to it. </span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-66472673925805661022017-02-22T18:36:00.000+03:002017-02-26T16:55:28.279+03:00Currency fall is not hardship is Russia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Several
days ago the Supreme Court of Russia issues its first quarterly review
of its most important decisions, which had been made recently (<a href="http://www.supcourt.ru/Show_pdf.php?Id=11275" target="_blank">Russian text </a>is available on the official web site). The
eighth judgment was about whether a plummeting fall of Russian currency
because of Crimea crisis could be considered as hardship and thus led to
conversion of a loan contract. The Court unsurprisingly gave a negative
answer, confirming general reluctance to use ‘rebus sic stantibus’
doctrine. However some remarks in the ruling seem to leave a door open
to use this clause as a ground for contract modification…</span></span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I
suppose that the media in most of the countries have paid a lot of attention
not only to inclusion of Crimea into Russian Federation and the civil
war in Ukraine that followed but also to those political tensions
between Russian and the USA with their European allies which led to
economic sanctions put upon Russia as a state as well as on its most
important companies. Not only didn’t these sanctions destroy the economy
of the country but contributed to its relieve from the oil dependency.
However the price paid for this immunity was quite high – the Russian
currency value fell dramatically, loosing roughly two thirds of its
price over just a couple of months, then bounced back, then heavily
decreased again… This turbulence made it almost impossible to make
long-term predictions thus affecting many businesses and their workers.</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Those
who took loans for buying a home found themselves in most difficult
position. During the first decade of the new millennium the economy in
general grew rather quickly so after several years of relative
prosperity people started buying new homes. In many cases they borrowed
money for the purchase and as the price of Russian currency, Rubl, had
been steadily increased since the 1998<sup>th</sup>, they often prefer
to take credits in euros or USA dollars. So when the Rubl exchange rate crashedat at the end of the 2014, their payments in national currency
became about three times bigger. Many of these loans were secured by
hypothecs of real estates people were living in, so stoppage of payments
inevitably resulted in selling their homes to cover bank’s losses.
Unsurprisingly some people tried to defeat themselves and an action to
modify a contract on a hardship clause was one of the most popular.</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup>
century the hardship clause have been used to balance interests of the
parties when rapidly changing circumstances made it unfair to follow
'pacta sunt servanta' rule. One can find the clause in art. 451 of Russian
Civil Code (rough translation from Russian can be taken <a href="http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/ru/ru083en.pdf" target="_blank">here</a>), which was
undoubtfully influenced by the definition of hardship in art. 6.2.2 of
the <a href="http://www.unidroit.org/instruments/commercial-contracts/unidroit-principles-1994" target="_blank">UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts</a>.
It can be easily seen that the commentary on the section expressly
illustrate the ‘fundamental alteration of equilibrium’ with an example
of a 50% fall of a currency value.</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite
its international origins and rich history of application, Russian
courts are generally reluctant to use art. 451 to modify the contract so
one can hardly find a single case where a bargain have been altered on
its base. The reason for this resistance was harshly formulated in many
decisions of the Russian High Arbitrage Court, which stated that in
modern Russian history the fall of the currency price had occurred
several times so both parties should bear it in mind when entered the
contract. ‘We are in Russia, folks!’…</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So
there is no surprise at all that the Supreme Court in the case of a
loan made in euros expressly ruled that it was the debtor who beared the
risk of the exchange rate alteration. However the ratio of the decision
left a lot space to try to make the same way again.</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">The
main reason for refusing to use the clause was that ‘the [lower] court
gave no single argument why the parties could not envisage the growth of
the euro exchange rate’. Moreover, ‘the court gave no motives why
enforcement of the contract would fundamentally alter the equilibrium of
the contract’.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The
court stipulated that exchange rate alteration ‘in itself’ does not
constitute a ‘fundamental change of equilibrium’ as, given the parties
entered the contract at their own will, they expressly intended to
locate the risk on the debtor. To relocate the risk the court should
carefully explain its reasons and motives.</span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Before modifying the
contract the court must thoroughly consider all the facts to determine
whether the requirements of the clause are fulfilled, such as real
capacity of the disadvantaging party to perform the contract without
modifications. Leaving the job at one’s own will (as the debtor had done
in the case) led her to diminishing ability to perform the obligation
so in this particular case the party should not shift the burden on
changing circumstances on the innocent creditor. Having three or more
children is not as such a ground to modify a contract either because the
link with the clause requisites was not proved by the plaintiff.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So
the decision can arguably viewed from optimistic prospective – there is
nothing wrong with law, it is just a matter of fact to prove that the
circumstances in question affected the particular contract. The
problem was not in court but in plaintiff.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br clear="none" /></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br clear="none" /></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br clear="none" /></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span data-mce-style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br clear="none" /></span></span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br clear="none" /></span></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-33118465730541277032017-02-19T23:22:00.000+03:002017-03-19T15:32:11.025+03:00Biological cell products <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">On the 1<sup>st</sup> of January 2017 the new
Law On Biological Cell Products took force to regulate procurement and
preservation of human bodily material for medical therapy (art. 1). It was specifically
mentioned that it did not cover not only blood donation or assisted
reproductive technologies, but also circulation of biosamples for research
purposes, thus being an analog for the European directives on advanced medical
treatment.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">These limits in Russia look weird, as nowadays
it is extremely difficult to draw a line between medical therapy and science as
most of biosamples are procured not only for making a single end product but
for future research as well. Even the end product should be tested and
monitored during the whole period of its use to understand its benefits and
pitfalls so in most cases any collected biosamples are stored in biobanks to
enable researchers and pharmacists use it again and again. Although art. 37 of
the law delegated the Ministry of Health to draw provision on biobanks, all
these norms would formally cover only biobanks for medical purposes and thus
all others would stay be left beyond the scope of any regulation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Just the same way the scope of biomaterial
usage principles (art. 3) is limited by the scope of the law and despite some
of them being clear, others seem to be quite controversial. The principle of
gratuitous donation of bodily material was said to be the main pillar of the
whole biological cell products turnover and was undoubtfully influenced by
international and European legislation. However, further in the same art. 3
another principal was specifically mentioned with slightly different wording,
namely a prohibition for bodily material to be sold, thus raising many
questions about whether other contracts for consideration were allowed. For
instance, was it possible to exchange biosamples or handle it as a subject
matter for a contract of service? A negative answer would obstruct any disposition
of biosamples thus this construction would inevitably fail, while a confirmative
answer for a singly contract would make the prohibition the formality too easy
to skirt. Moreover nothing prevents scientists from deriving a cell line to
transfer it instead of original bodily material, as a cell line is not
biosamples…<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It is unclear in which relationship the latter
mentioned prohibition should work. If the legislator bore in mind the
procurement relationship, the prohibition would double the principle of
gratuitous donation and thus is unnecessary. It only made sense to apply this
prohibition is relationships between the procurer and third parties thus making
us draw two further conclusions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">First of all, in this case the prohibition to
sale biosamples will almost inevitably be interpreted as general principal for
Russian legislation, with its scope far beyond the limits originally expressed
in art.3 of the law. It will be connected with art. 21 of the Oviedo Convention
for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard
to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and
Biomedicine, stating that ‘human body and its parts shall not, as such, give
rise to financial gain.’ Although there is no such wording in the current
Russian law, it echoes ideas of gratuity in blood and gametes donation outlined
above, and has some historical tradition in the abolished Basics of Legislation
on Human Health Protection. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">However, the second point should be eventual
failure to enforce the prohibition as the whole development of medical
research, court practice and legislation in the recent decades has shown sheer
impossibility to stop commodification of human body. And it is this
commercializing process that make the Parliament let to exchange blood for
value either for donor or for a third party, a vast market of sperm and oocytes
exists completely legally, and many other examples of biosamples
commodification were mentioned above or can be thought of. So total prohibition
of valuable biospecimen disposition would definitely stop scientific research
and trials as procurement, collection and preservation would not be paid for.
It is absolutely clear that either medics or pharmacists have quite a different
goal; hence the commodification of tissues and cell will increase. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Reading the donor’s rights as they outlined in
the art. 34 of the law one cannot avoid a question what patients should donate
their specimens for. Even for blood donation with its quite a long history
based on total altruism of a participant it is proved to be impossible to
reserve enough blood without paying for it. However a principle of gratitude is
much easier argued for blood transfusion than for producing commercially successful
drugs out of tissues or cells. So, although a donor should definitely have
rights, named in art. 34 such as a right to deny getting samples, a right to be
informed of any potential risks on the intervention or a right for ‘protection
of health’, the law in general provides no guarantees or mechanisms for donors
to obtain any benefit from the research, even in a form of personal
involvement. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Then, according to art. 33 of the law not only
should biomaterial procurement be made by a licensed medical entity, but for
some reason just upon a contract with a manufacture of biological cell products
and for its expense. The lawmakers thus tend to consider medical entity as an
agent of a manufacture so any property rights should directly be vested in the
latter. However it is completely unclear what were the reason and the aim of
this restriction. Whatever the reason was, the rule is too easy to skirt as
procurement for purposes other than producing biological cell products is
expressly stated to be beyond the scope of the law. So one can at any time
procure samples ‘for scientific purposes’ and then transfer them to
manufacture… Unfortunately huge amount of these unnecessary formalities clearly
shows poor quality of the whole law. These gaps would probably be filled by
Minister of Health who was delegated a right to decree procurement procedure
rules as well as an informed consent form for the donation (see art (2)33 and
art. (8)33). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 35.4pt;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Finally art. 38 provides that any unclaimed
cell lines as well as any body material after use should be eliminated in the
same way as other medical waste (these rules were outlined above). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-40571156836512709632017-02-15T11:56:00.000+03:002017-03-13T22:05:19.980+03:00Is there a property right on human tissues and cells?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Is there a property right in human tissues and
cells after separation from the body? The issue is being hotly debated
throughout the Globe and today I'd like to outline few existing norms on the
topic according to Russian law. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">In Russian legislation there are no general
provisions on biomaterial after separation from a human body, in the Law “On
protection of human health” (hereinafter – “the Law On Health Protection”)
where they are expected to be located one can find only a mention that
laboratory diagnostics is a kind of medical service (art. 2). </span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">However the law remarkably failed to prohibit
to ‘sale or make any other bargains for profit’ with human organs or
tissues. The proscription had been made in art (2) 47 of The Foundations of
Legislation on Human Health Protection, which were abolished in the 2011 by the
Law On Health Protection enactment, and, in alliance with art. (1) 4 of the Law
on Transplantation making the same prohibition for organs for transplantation,
it had been construed as general withdrawal of any tissues and cells from the
turnover. Not only is it absent in the current law, the regulation contains
different aspects of contracts with donor’s blood, gametes and some other cells
and tissues, so one should conclude that in Russia any restrictions on
contracts with human cells are exceptions, not general rules. Moreover, vast
market of pay diagnostic of human cells, sale of hair or breast milk confirms
legality of such contracts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Besides this preterition there are few
regulatory provisions in the law. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Blood donations</span></b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">The Federal Law N 124-FZ “On Blood and its
components donation” enacted 29.07.2012 regulate procedures of procurement,
preservation and transportation of human blood and its components for donation
purposes (art. 1) and it can be easily seen from either the law itself or the
executive orders made upon it that blood may be procured or transferred to a
third party not only gratuitously but also for monetary compensation. That is
enough to say that human blood is a kind of property and as such it can be a
subject matter of a contract of proprietary interest.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Reproductive technologies</span></b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">One can find several provisions on donation of
reproductive tissues and cells. For instance, it is mentioned in art. 55 of The
Law On Health Protection amid assisted reproductive technologies and the norm
delegated to the Federal Ministry of Health to establish rules for their
application. Art. 40 of the Executive Order On The Way How Assisted
Reproductive Technologies Shall Be Applied stated that any human being can
preserve his or her reproductive tissues or cells not only on medical
prescription but on their on wish. Any such procurement requires a voluntary
informed consent made prior to intervention (see art. 43 and 45 for men and
women respectively). Then art. 49 mentions a medical entity being a custodian
of reproductive tissues and cells bearing responsibility for keeping them in
good conditions. Finally art. 52 constitutes a patient’s right to withdraw its
biomaterial on the written request. All these provisions infer that biosamples
are considered as property belonging to a patient and a subject matter of a
contract of deposit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Art. 54 confirms a woman’s right to donate her
oocytes if she have given an informed consent for medical intervention as well
as permission to use her cells for other patients (see art. 58). In contrast
with deposit relationships previously outlined in this case the woman agrees to
transfer her bodily material and given the cells are proved to be property, we
should infer that she vests her rights in the medical entity. Similar
provisions for sperm donation (art. 62 – 69) shall be interpreted respectively.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Medical waste</span></b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Provisions on medical waste can be found in the
“Sanitary epidemiological requirements for medical waste treatment”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftnref1"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=573709585637477908#_ftn1" title=""><span style="color: blue; font-family: "" "cambria" "" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">[1]</span></a> few
of them being made on private law. Chapter 2 of these Requirements prescribes
to bury anatomopathological and organic surgery waste (namely organs and tissues)
on a plant according to a set procedure thus considering them as a subject
matter of a contract of service and hence, a property to be transferred.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><br clear="all" />
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">
</span><br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;">
</span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_ftn1"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=573709585637477908#_ftnref1" title=""><span style="color: blue; font-family: "" "cambria" "" , "serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[1]</span></a><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 13.5pt;"> Authority to set these rules was given to the Russian Chief
Sanitary Doctor by the Government according to art. 49 The Law On Health
Protection<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-15811857409629036852017-02-12T15:01:00.000+03:002017-03-05T16:29:10.877+03:00The new law on real estate registry<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">On the 1<sup>st</sup>
of January 2017 the new Law of Real Estate Registry took effect, abolishing a
large quantity of acts which had been enacted since 1998 when general rules in this question were provided for the first time. As the law of 1998 was the the starting point for real
estate registry in modern Russian history, it had been amended enormously often
thus the general revision seems to be quite a reasonable step to take.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">However,
the new law is not just a unification of different enactments, it’s a further
step in a massive reform aiming to land parcel and building upon it into a
single object of rights. I <a href="http://russianprivatelaw.blogspot.ru/2017/01/a-landmark-decision-on-real-property.html" target="_blank">have already mentioned</a> that nowadays they are two
distinct objects so, selling a house, an owner must sell both a parcel and a
building itself, the weird approach being a consequence of economic reforms of
1990ths. So, why is the new registry law important?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">First of
all, it sets up a new single registry (“The Single State Real Estate Registry”)
instead of two distinct (first one for rights on real estate and another one
for its specifications).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That means in
many cases to register a property right one should follow just one procedure
instead of two (at first to specify technical characteristics of an object and
then to register a right upon it), resulting in two different government bodies
being joined into one (its short name in Russian is <a href="https://rosreestr.ru/site/en/about/" target="_blank">RosRehestr</a>). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">This
unification has led to shorter terms of registration (not longer than 10
working days instead of 20 working days in the previous law). Moreover, one can
submit any documents either through official web site or personally through any
of the offices or multi-functional centers over the country, notwithstanding
the location of the property (art. 18). Just couple of months ago one had to go
to a registry office closest to the location and possibility of electronic
submission was a lucky exception…<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All these measures will inevitably change the
mindset of either lawyers and lay people, making them consider any changes to
the property as a modification of the right upon it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-55564617285258531242017-02-10T12:54:00.000+03:002017-03-20T11:11:52.720+03:00Constitutional Court Decision to protect infringers <div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">On the 13th of December 2016 the Constitutional Court of Russia made important <a href="http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&nd=102418092&intelsearch=28-%CF+%EE%F2+13.12.2016" target="_blank">decision</a> on authors, patent and trademark law aiming to protect infringers whose punishment might be too severe according to existing rules. Russian Ministry of Justice have already made a <a href="http://regulation.gov.ru/projects/List/AdvancedSearch#npa=61822" target="_blank">proposal</a> for amendments…</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Authors, patent and trademark law is the Part 4 of the Russian Civil Code and its art. (1) 1301, (1) 1311, (4) 1515 provide that in case of infringement an author or an owner of intellectual property can ask for compensation instead of proving losses, the amount of the compensation should be from 10 000 rubles to 5 million rubles for each infringement (today the rate is around 59 rubles for US dollar, so the amount is between 170 and 84746 dollars). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The court stated that in general the compensation was purported to protect the intellectual property, as it was always difficult to prove losses as far as intangibles were concerned. When an infringer was a business legal entity, which acted at their own risk, the compensation amount couldn’t be considered unfair even in case it exceeded the losses of an intellectual property owner, several other examples of penalties in civil legislation being mentioned. However as far as individual businessman (businesswoman) was concerned all the case should be looked at from a different perspective. An individual businessman (businesswoman) is liable to creditors with all his (her) property. So in case the punishment was too severe, the hardship would affect not only the infringers but their family and children as weall. Thus in this case a court should have more discretion to compare all the circumstances in question to set a fair penalty, said the Court, and therefore a fix minimum of the compensation contradicted the Constitution.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Although the decision might seem to be an unjustified protection to violators, the sheer number of cases, where such protection could be applied, is tending to zero. So the Ministry of Justice unsurprisingly quickly made a proposal for the Civil Code amendments to fill the gap. It suggested to let a court set a compensation less that 10 000 rubles if it was the first infringement, the losses are ‘in several times’ less than the compensation minimum and, finally, the infringement is not 'severe'. All these general word should let a court made a ‘fair’ decision in each particular case but this flexibility is looking quite rhetorical.</span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-32899366207551564332017-02-07T13:06:00.000+03:002017-03-20T11:05:50.206+03:00A further step to electronic litigation<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Due to some amendments and new acts as well as some improvements in the court system Internet site it is now possible to bring an action on-line not only in an Arbitrage court (which is mainly for business claims) but in General Jurisdictions courts also (which is for non-business disputes). An electronic action should be signed be an electronic signature, which can be made within 2 days for about 2000 rubles (something like $40), so it undoubtfully simplifies getting court protection for a broken right for anyone suing more than once. Although there are some weird soft bugs (for instance, nowadays the system accepts only PDF documents which have been previously printed and then scanned), they tend to be solved and anyway it solves a lot of time for lawyers and businesses.</span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-39911658362264372112017-02-05T11:12:00.000+03:002017-03-20T11:04:27.796+03:00The privacy and the law of proof<div class="p1" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">An audio of a conversation between parties to a contract can undoubtedly be a proof in a litigation amid them but does it matter whether both parties knew it was recorded? </span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;">The decision on the case before the Supreme Court eventually depended on the answer to the question above. The litigation was about a money debt and there were several loans between the parties, some of them had peen successfully paid back but one had been not. Unfortunately for the plaintiff the parties were friends at the time of the contract so no proper documents had been signed so it was difficult for her to prove which loan exactly hadn't been paid. She decided to use an audio of a conversation between her and the defendant in which the counterpart confirmed the debt. There was the only problem with this record - it was made without debtor's knowledge. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">The first instance decision was in plaintiff's favor with the audio as the key evidence.. However, the decision was reversed in an appeal court, which ruled that any parties of the conversation should know and approve the recording, otherwise it infringe the privacy of the person (art. 9 of the Russian Law on Information and Its Protection). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">The. Supreme court disaffirmed the appeal's court ruling by pointing out that privacy protected a person from the information being collected by the state or by an unauthorized third party. The circumstances of the case were totally different as the conversation was recorded by another party to the contract and, therefore, her rights and liability were affected as well. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">The decision is o be considered an important step to confirm that еhe privacy rules should not be an excuse to broke one's duties.</span></div>
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<span class="s1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">From the 1</span><span class="s2" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial;"><sup>st</sup></span><span class="s1" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;"> of July 2016 the amended Arbitrage Code has mandatorily prescribed to send a complaint to a counterpart prior to sue, in order to diminish the sheer number of cases that have to be ruled by court.<a name='more'></a></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1"></span></span><br />
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">In the previous year roughly 1,5 million cases went through the arbitrage courts and three fourth of them were disputes on property or contracts. Moreover, in about 60 % of these cases the claim value were less than $10 000, that means they were relatively cheap and simple. To ease this burden on the judges the Parliament put additional impediment on a potential plaintiff that is a mandatory complaint.</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">According to the new version of the art. 5 of the Russian Arbitrage Code a complaint is required to be send 30 day before bringing a suit to an Arbitrage court, unless otherwise provided in the contract, with just few exceptions.</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Some remarks should be made in order to explain the rule.</span></span></div>
<div class="p1" style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">First of all, as the Civil Procedure Code was not amended, ordinary people still can litigate without any compulsory pretensions, the scope of the law being restricted by legal entities. Then, the parties to the contract can change the length of the complaint period and set, for example, a fortnight for the document to be answered, but they may not avoid this procedure by mutual agreement. The law means that sending a complaint save a statute of limitation according to art. 202 (3) of the Russian Civil Code. The mentioned exceptions are mainly the bankruptcy cases, corporate disputes and trademark infringements, as well as some others of less significance.</span></span></div>
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<span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: initial; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Unfortunately in Russia e-mails are still argued to substitute written documents as a proof unless they are send in the address stated in the contract. So it’s worth thinking about changing all the contract forms to include it there, otherwise the complaint will have to be send by post which is more expensive and long while much less secure.</span></div>
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</style>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-51651791678031010752017-01-31T15:17:00.000+03:002017-03-20T10:59:57.702+03:00The official service for power of attorney verification<div class="p1" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span class="s1">On the 1</span><span class="s2"><sup>st</sup></span><span class="s1"> of January 2017 the amendments to the law on powers of attorney were enacted for greater protection to any third parties relying on these documents. It made the Russian Notary Chamber create and run <a href="http://reestr-dover.ru/"><span class="s3">the Internet site</span></a> to let anyone check validity of the document. The service seems to be extremely useful thinking of simplicity of forgery of any kinds of written documents nowadays.</span></span></div>
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<div class="p1" style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Not only lets it check whether the power of attorney was given by the said notary on the said day but also monitor its revocation. The amendments in question allow any power of attorney to be withdrawn in notary form and make the notary put the information on any such withdrawal in the Internet. That results in anyone’s possibility to verify that a power of attorney they are shown is still in force. However this, in turn, place some responsibility on the people as the day after the notary withdrawal anybody is regarded to be informed of the revocation.</span></span></div>
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">So the amendments have changed the reasonable care standard in any relationships with a representative of a third party. One should not rely on the power of attorney shown unless he or she has checked out its validity <a href="http://reestr-dover.ru/"><span class="s3">in the official Internet service</span></a>.</span></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0Санкт-Петербург, Россия59.9342802 30.33509860000003859.4248817 29.044205100000038 60.443678700000007 31.625992100000037tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-22097405705404389322017-01-29T14:21:00.001+03:002017-03-19T22:48:40.944+03:00Human cloning in Russian law
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<span class="s1"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Here is the link to <a href="https://www.academia.edu/27326752/Human_cloning_in_Russian_law"><span class="s2">my paper</span></a> on <a href="http://www.academia.edu/"><span class="s2">www.Academia.edu</span></a> on a quite controversial topic that is possibility of human cloning in Russian law. One should bear in mind that may ‘cloning’ not only mean ‘making a copy’ in a Dolly the sheep manner but also ‘editing’ the genome in therapy purposes. The article tends to prove its legality in Russia.</span></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-44187067938526675122017-01-27T10:24:00.000+03:002017-03-19T22:47:21.124+03:00A landmark decision on real property<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;">Few days ago The Supreme Court of Russia made a remarkable decision on real estate, concerning some issues of what is block of flats as an object and how the right on a plot of land beneath it depend on the right on a flat (Russian text is available </span><a href="http://supcourt.ru/stor_pdf_ec.php?id=1510748" style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: justify;" target="_blank">here</a><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;">).</span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; text-align: justify;">I should say that according to current Russian legislation the land parcel and anything built upon it are at least two distinct objects so the classical idea that a building is a part of the land doesn’t work in Russia. ‘At least’ means that as far as block of flats is concerned there are as many objects as flats in the block and two more namely the parcel and all the main elements of the construction (the foundation, the roof, the walls etc.) as another single thing. This weird approach results from the history of economic reforms of the 1990ths when the Soviet economy was rapidly transformed into free market. Trying to transfer maximum of state property to private owners, the government choose different schemes of privatization so in some cases they sold parcels of land, in some cases – buildings or their parts such as flats.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Although current concept of real property has its history and explanation it also lead to a number of problems and amid the main ones is that of right on land dependence on the right on the building or its part. The Supreme Court decision made several important interpretations of the law in question.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Although all real estate rights must be registered, an apartment buyer has an exception namely he or she are also transferred the right on a share of the parcel. This transfer takes place by law and nobody needs make any additional steps for in. This means that if a person acquires all the flats in the house, they become a solitary owner of the parcel without any further formalities. Moreover, the Court clearly stated that ‘block of flats’ is not an object; there can be either a house or number of flats and common property on all the main constructions.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Court concluded that if the solitary owner of all the flats in the block demolishes the building he (or she) can build another block of flats transferring the right on land share to purchasers of the flat. </span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-573709585637477908.post-52577771368759232322017-01-13T13:30:00.000+03:002017-03-19T22:43:15.301+03:00Introduction<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Hello!</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Here I am, setting up a new blog on Russian private law. Despite some political tensions between my country and the Western world as well as some (unfortunately traditional) economical turbulence I do believe that there are lots of people who think about doing business in Russia. Higher risks are often compensated with higher profits so with a little bit of luck and some knowledge in the law everything can start working well for you! Surprisingly I didn't find any regularly updated blog or site on the topic so I decided to fill the gap on my own. </span><br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A few words about myself should be said. My name is Ghennady Vasiliev, I graduated from the Faculty of Law of Saint-Petersburg State University which our president Vladimir Putin had graduated 25 years before. Over the years of my studying the current Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev, the current Minister of Justice Alexander Konovalov and several of Judges of the Russian Constitutional Court lectured me. After graduation the University I competed a Candidate Degree Paper (the Russian equivalent of PhD) under the leadership of Anton Ivanov, the Head of the High Arbitrage Court of Russia). The Paper was about the transfer of ownership on movables and I still think It was a good piece of work. Then had been working as a lecture on private law in the Faculty and as a vice-rector of the University in maintenance until retired in the March 2016. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As for the subject matter of the blog, I'm going to write about different aspects of Russian private law, but not about all of them. Basically I'm interested in the law of real estate, sales of goods, consumer law, housing law and, finally, family law. I suppose nothing will be said about company law and securities or about the law of inheritance unless I am asked about them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As I can't cover all the topics at once, I'm going to write mostly news about the development of Russian private law giving some explanations about basic concepts where necessary. If something remains uncertain for you, please, do not hesitate to ask me - I'm try my best to explain you everything you need. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">I should apologies for my inevitable mistakes in English. I'm not a native speaker and have never lived in English-speaking country for more than a month. So I do appreciate any corrections in spelling or wording or anything else. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With any questions or suggestions please write at <a href="mailto:gennady.s.vasiliev@gmail.com">gennady.s.vasiliev@gmail.com</a> </span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07173587401633424521noreply@blogger.com0